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The effects of aging on a human face
Aging, or ageing (British English) is any change in an organism over time. Aging refers to a multidimensional process of physical, psychological, and social change. Some dimensions of aging grow and expand over time, while others decline. Reaction time, for example, may slow with age, while knowledge of world events and wisdom may expand. Research shows that even late in life potential exists for physical, mental, and social growth and development. Aging is an important part of all human societies reflecting the biological changes that occur, but also reflecting cultural and societal conventions. Age is usually measured in full years — and months for young children. A person\'s birthday is often an important event.
The term "aging" is somewhat ambiguous. Distinctions may be made between "universal aging" (age changes that all people share) and "probabilistic aging" (age changes that may happen to some, but not all people as they grow older, such as the onset of Type Two diabetes). Chronological aging, referring to how old a person is, is arguably the most straightforward definition of aging and may be distinguished from "social aging" (society\'s expectations of how people should act as they grow older) and "biological aging" (an organism\'s physical state as it ages). There is also a distinction between "proximal aging" (age-based effects that come about because of factors in the recent past) and "distal aging" (age-based differences that can be traced back to a cause early in person\'s life, such as childhood poliomyelitis).
Differences are sometimes made between populations of children;divisions are sometimes made between the young old (65-74), the middle old (75-84) and the oldest old (those aged 85 and above). However, problematic in this is that chronological age does not correlate perfectly with functional age, i.e. two people may be of the same age, but differ in their mental and physical capacities.
Population aging is the increase in the number and proportion of older people in society. Population aging has three possible causes: migration, longer life expectancy (decreased death rate), and decreased birth rate. The societal effects of aging are great. Young people tend to commit most crimes, they are more likely to push for political and social change, to develop and adopt new technologies, and to need education. Older people have different requirements from society and government as opposed to young people, and frequently differing values as well. Older people are also far more likely to vote, and in many countries the young are forbidden from voting. Thus, the aged have comparatively more political influence.
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An elderly Iraqi man
A UK pensioner, 2005
In biology, senescence is the state or process of aging. Cellular senescence is a phenomenon where isolated cells demonstrate a limited ability to divide in culture (the Hayflick Limit, discovered by Leonard Hayflick in 1965), while Organismal senescence is the aging of organisms.
After a period of near perfect renewal (in humans, between 20 and 50 years of age[citation needed]), organismal senescence is characterized by the declining ability to respond to stress, increasing homeostatic imbalance and increased risk of disease. This irreversible series of changes inevitably ends in death.
Some researchers (specifically biogerontologists) are treating aging as a disease. As genes that have an effect on aging are discovered, aging is increasingly being regarded in a similar fashion to other genetic conditions, potentially "treatable."
Indeed, aging is not an unavoidable property of life. Instead, it is the result of a genetic program. Numerous species show no sign of aging ("negligible senescence\'), the best known being trees like the bristlecone pine, fish like the sturgeon, invertebrates like the quahog or sea anemone Physiological Basis of Aging and Geriatrics, By Paola S. Timiras, p.26, Published 2003 Informa Health Care, ISBN 0849309484.
Aging is believed to be favored by natural selection because it accelerates the evolution rate of a species by increasing the number of generations per unit of time. By dying away, the old individuals liberate the resources for their offspring, thus increasing their chance of survival. Essentially, aging is the result of investing resources in reproduction rather than maintenance of the body, the "Disposable Soma" theory of Kirkwood & Holiday Genetic Effects on Aging II, By David E. Harrison, p.9, Published 1990 CRC Press, ISBN 0936923318.
In humans and other animals, cellular senescence has been attributed to the shortening of telomeres with each cell cycle; when telomeres become too short, the cells die. The length of telomeres is therefore the "molecular clock," predicted by Hayflick. Telomere length is maintained in immortal cells (e.g. germ cells) by the enzyme telomerase. In the laboratory, mortal cell lines can be immortalized by the activation of their telomerase gene, present in all cells but active in few cell types. Cancerous cells must become immortal to multiply without limit. This important step towards carcinogenesis implies, in 85% of cancers, the reactivation of their telomerase gene by mutation. Since this mutation is rare, the telomere "clock" can be seen as a protective mechanism against cancer name="pmid10647931">Hanahan D, Weinberg RA (2000). "The hallmarks of cancer". Cell 100 (1): 57–70. PMID 10647931. .
Other genes are known to affect the aging process, the sirtuin family of genes have been shown to have a significant effect on the lifespan of yeast and nematodes. Over-expression of the RAS2 gene increases lifespan in yeast substantially.
In addition to genetic ties to lifespan, diet has been shown to substantially affect lifespan in many animals. Specifically, caloric restriction (that is, restricting calories to 30-50% less than an ad libitum animal would consume, while still maintaining proper nutrient intake), has been shown to increase lifespan in mice up to 50%. Caloric restriction works on many other species beyond mice (including species as diverse as yeast and Drosophila), and appears (though the data is not conclusive) to increase lifespan in primates according to a study done on Rhesus monkeys at the National Institute of Health (US). Since, at the molecular level, age is counted not as time but as the number of cell doublings, this effect of calorie reduction could be mediated by the slowing of cellular growth and, therefore, the lengthening of the time between cell divisions.
Drug companies are currently searching for ways to mimic the lifespan-extending effects of caloric restriction without having to severely reduce food consumption.
A human life is often divided into various ages. Historically, the lifespan of man was divided into seven ages; because biological changes are slow moving and vary from person to person, arbitrary dates are usually set to mark periods of human life. In some cultures the divisions given below are quite varied.
In the USA, adulthood legally begins at the age of eighteen or nineteen, while old age is considered to begin at the age of legal retirement (approximately 65).
Ages can also be divided by decade:
In some cultures (for example Serbian and Russian) there are two ways to express age: by counting years with or without including current year. For example, it could be said about the same person that he is twenty years old or that he is in twenty-first year of his life.
Considerable numbers of cultures have less of a problem with age compared with what has been described above, and it is seen as an important status to reach stages in life, rather than defined numerical ages. Advanced age is given more respect and status.
East Asian age reckoning is different from that found in Western culture. Traditional Chinese culture uses a different aging method, called Xusui (虛歲) with respect to common aging which is called Zhousui (周歲). In the Xusui method, people are born at age 1, not age 0.
There are variations in many countries as to what age a person legally becomes an adult.
Most legal systems define a specific age for when an individual is allowed or obliged to do something. These ages include voting age, drinking age, age of consent, age of majority, age of criminal responsibility, marriageable age, age where one can hold public office, and mandatory retirement age. Admission to a movie for instance, may depend on age according to a motion picture rating system. A bus fare might be discounted for the young or old.
Similarly in many countries in jurisprudence, the defense of infancy is a form of defense by which a defendant argues that, at the time a law was broken, they were not liable for their actions, and thus should not be held liable for a crime. Many courts recognize that defendants who are considered to be juveniles may avoid criminal prosecution on account of their age.
The economics of aging are also of great import. Children and teenagers have little money of their own, but most of it is available for buying consumer goods. They also have considerable impact on how their parents spend money.
Young adults are an even more valuable cohort. They often have jobs with few responsibilities such as a mortgage or children. They do not yet have set buying habits and are more open to new products.
The young are thus the central target of marketers.Krulwich, Robert (2006). Does Age Quash Our Spirit of Adventure?. All Things Considered. NPR. Retrieved on 2006-08-22. Television is programmed to attract the range of 15 to 35 year olds. Movies are also built around appealing to the young.
Many societies in the rich world, i.e. Western Europe and Japan, have aging populations. While the effects on society are complex, there is a concern about the impact on health care demand. The large number of suggestions in the literature for specific interventions to cope with the expected increase in demand for long-term care in aging societies can be organized under four headings: improve system performance; redesign service delivery; support informal caregivers; and shift demographic parameters.Saltman, R.B.; Dubois, H.F.W.; Chawla, M. (2006). "The Impact Of Aging On Long-term Care In Europe And Some Potential Policy Responses". International Journal of Health Services 36 (4): 719-746. Retrieved on 2008-02-11.
Steady decline in many cognitive processes are seen across the lifespan, starting in one\'s thirties. Research has focused in particular on memory and aging, and has found decline in many types of memory with aging, but not in semantic memory or general knowledge such as vocabulary definitions, which typically increases or remains steady. Early studies on changes in cognition with age generally found declines in intelligence in the elderly, but studies were cross-sectional rather than longitudinal and thus results may be an artefact of cohort rather than a true example of decline. Intelligence may decline with age, though the rate may vary depending on the type, and may in fact remain steady throughout most of the lifespan, dropping suddenly only as people near the end of their lives. Individual variations in rate of cognitive decline may therefore be explained in terms of people have different lengths of life.Stuart-Hamilton, Ian. The Psychology of Ageing: An Introduction. London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers. ISBN 1-84310-426-1.
Psychologists have examined coping skills in the elderly. Various factors, such as social support, religion and spirituality, active engagement with life and having an internal locus of control have been proposed as being beneficial in helping people to cope with stressful life events in later life.Schulz R, Heckhausen J (1996). "A life span model of successful aging". Am Psychol 51 (7): 702–14. PMID 8694390. Windsor TD, Anstey KJ, Butterworth P, Luszcz MA, Andrews GR (2007). "The role of perceived control in explaining depressive symptoms associated with driving cessation in a longitudinal study". Gerontologist 47 (2): 215–23. PMID 17440126. Diane F. Gilmer; Aldwin, Carolyn M. (2003). Health, illness, and optimal aging: biological and psychosocial perspectives. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications. ISBN 0-7619-2259-8. Social support and personal control are possibly the two most important factors that predict well-being, morbidity and mortality in adults.Smith GC, Kohn SJ, Savage-Stevens SE, Finch JJ, Ingate R, Lim YO (2000). "The effects of interpersonal and personal agency on perceived control and psychological well-being in adulthood". Gerontologist 40 (4): 458–68. PMID 10961035. Other factors that may link to well-being and quality of life in the elderly include social relationships (possibly relationships with pets as well as humans), and health.Bowling, Ann (2005). Ageing well: quality of life in old age. [Milton Keynes]: Open University Press. ISBN 0335215092.
Individuals in different wings in the same retirement home have demonstrated a lower risk of mortality and higher alertness and self-rated health in the wing where residents had greater control over their environment,Langer EJ, Rodin J (1976). "The effects of choice and enhanced personal responsibility for the aged: a field experiment in an institutional setting". J Pers Soc Psychol 34 (2): 191–8. PMID 1011073. Rodin J, Langer EJ (1977). "Long-term effects of a control-relevant intervention with the institutionalized aged". J Pers Soc Psychol 35 (12): 897–902. PMID 592095. though personal control may have less impact on specific measures of health. Social control, perceptions of how much influence one has over one\'s social relationships, shows support as a moderator variable for the relationship between social support and perceived health in the elderly, and may postiviely influence coping in the elderly.Bisconti, T.L. (1999). "Perceived social control as a mediator of the relationships among social support, psychological well-being, and perceived health". The Gerontologist 39 (1): 94-103. Retrieved on 2008-02-11.
Religion has been an important factor used by the elderly in coping with the demands of later life, and appears more often than other forms of coping later in life.McFadden, S (2005), Gerontology and the Psychology of Religion; inPark, Crystal L.; Raymond F. Paloutzian. Handbook of the Psychology of Religion and Spirituality. New York: The Guilford Press. ISBN 1-57230-922-9. Religious commitment may also be associated with reduced mortality,[citation needed] though religiosity is a multidimensional variable; while participation in religious activities in the sense of participation in formal and organized rituals may decline, it may become a more informal, but still important aspect of life such as through personal or private prayer.Mindel CH, Vaughan CE (1978). "A multidimensional approach to religiosity and disengagement". J Gerontol 33 (1): 103–8. PMID 618958.
Self-ratings of health, the beliefs in one\'s own health as excellent, fair or poor, has been correlated with well-being and mortality in the elderly; positive ratings are linked to high well-being and reduced mortality.Idler, E.L. (2003). "Discussion: Gender Differences in Self-Rated Health, in Mortality, and in the Relationship Between the Two". The Gerontologist 43 (3): 372-375. Retrieved on 2008-02-11. Deeg, D.J.H.; Bath, P.A. (2003). "Self-Rated Health, Gender, and Mortality in Older Persons: Introduction to a Special Section". The Gerontologist 43 (3): 369-371. Retrieved on 2008-02-11. Various reasons have been proposed for this association; people who are objectively healthy may naturally rate their health better than that of their ill counterparts, though this link has been observed even in studies which have controlled for socioeconomic status, psychological functioning and health status.Benyamini, Y.; Blumstein, T.; Lusky, A.; Modan, B. (2003). "Gender Differences in the Self-Rated Health-Mortality Association: Is It Poor Self-Rated Health That Predicts Mortality or Excellent Self-Rated Health That Predicts Survival?". The Gerontologist 43 (3): 396-405. Retrieved on 2008-02-11. This finding is generally stronger for men than women, though the pattern between genders is not universal across all studies, and some results suggest sex-based differences only appear in certain age groups, for certain causes of mortality and within a specific sub-set of self-ratings of health.
Retirement, a common transition faced by the elderly, may have both positive and negative consequences.Panek, Paul E.; Hayslip, Bert (1989). Adult development and aging. San Francisco: Harper & Row. ISBN 0060450126.
Societal aging refers to the demographic aging of populations and societies.Sarah Harper, 2006, Aging Societies: Myths, Challenges and Opportunities. Cultural differences in attitudes to aging have been studied.[citation needed]
Given the physical and cognitive declines seen in aging, a surprising finding is that emotional experience improves with age. Older adults are better at regulating their emotions and experience negative affect less frequently than younger adults and show a positivity effect in their attention and memory. The emotional improvements show up in longitudinal studies as well as in cross-sectional studies, and so cannot be entirely due to only the happier individuals surviving.
The concept of successful aging can be traced back to the 1950s, and popularised in the 1980s. Previous research into aging exaggerated the extent to which health disabilities, such as diabetes or osteoporosis, could be attributed exclusively to age, and research in gerontology exaggerated the homogeneity of samples of elderly people.Strawbridge WJ, Wallhagen MI, Cohen RD (2002). "Successful aging and well-being: self-rated compared with Rowe and Kahn". Gerontologist 42 (6): 727–33. PMID 12451153. Rowe JW, Kahn RL (1987). "Human aging: usual and successful". Science 237 (4811): 143–9. PMID 3299702.
Successful aging consists of three components:Rowe JW, Kahn RL (1997). "Successful aging". Gerontologist 37 (4): 433–40. PMID 9279031.
A greater number of people self-report successful aging than those that strictly meet these criteria.
Successful aging may be viewed an interdisciplinary concept, spanning both psychology and sociology, where it is seen as the transaction between society and individuals across the life span with specific focus on the later years of life.Fentleman, DL (1990), Successful aging in a postretirement society; in Baltes, Margret M.; Baltes, Paul B. (1990). Successful aging: perspectives from the behavioral sciences. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 052143582X. The terms "healthy aging" "optimal aging" have been proposed as alternatives to successful aging.
Six suggested dimensions of successful aging include:
The normal point of time from where to measure the age of a human being is from birth. Age in prenatal development is normally measured in gestational age, taking the last menstruation of the woman as a point of beginning. Alternatively, fertilization age, beginning from fertilization can be taken.
Age is often rounded downward to an integer, where the time of birth is taken to have been 0:00 (in other words, the number of days is first rounded upward, before rounding downward to whole years). Thus the age range 4-11 is until the 12th birthday.
Look up aging in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to:
| Developmental biology | |
|---|---|
| Embryology | Embryogenesis - Human embryogenesis |
| Other | Metamorphosis - Regeneration - Aging - Model organisms - Compartment |
| Human development: biological - psychological | |
|---|---|
| Stages | Prenatal development • Pre- and perinatal psychology • Infancy • Toddlerhood • Childhood • Preadolescence • Puberty • Adolescence • Adulthood - Early adulthood • Middle adulthood • Late adulthood |
| Development | Child development (stages) • Youth development • Ageing & Senescence |
| Theorists-theories | John Bowlby-attachment • Erik Erikson-psychosocial • Sigmund Freud-psychosexual • Lawrence Kohlberg-moral • Jean Piaget-cognitive • Lev Vygotsky-cultural-historical |
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